Condet

Jennifer Freedman, PhD

• Assistant Professor in Medicine
• Member of the Duke Cancer Institute

https://medicine.duke.edu/faculty/jennifer-freedman-phd

Project Scheduling and the Critical Path (Optimization) A common problem faced by project managers is to schedule the various activities that must be completed to finish a project women's health center in langhorne generic 0.25mg dostinex with amex. The term "project" can be interpreted quite broadly breast cancer emoji buy 0.25mg dostinex otc, with examples ranging from construction projects to fundraising campaigns to weapons development programs to terror attacks women's health group tallmadge ohio generic dostinex 0.5mg visa. One of the most important questions one can ask is breast cancer zit purchase dostinex 0.25 mg, how long will completing the entire project take? An easy approach for answering this question that can be implemented by hand for small problems (or with the aid of specialized computer programs such as Microsoft Project for larger ones) is as follows (for a spreadsheet implementation, see Winston and Albright, 2009): First, produce a list of all project tasks that must be completed along with estimates for the duration of each task. Second, for each task, note the "immediate predecessor" activities that must be completed immediately before the task in question can begin. Third, starting with those tasks for which there are no prerequisite activities (and hence can begin at "time zero" when the project starts), determine the earliest time that these activities can be completed. These are "first round" activities, and because their completion does not rely on other activities, their "early finish" times are simply the task durations. Fourth, for each remaining downstream task, the earliest time each task can begin is computed from the formula Early Start Time = maximum where the maximum is taken over all the Early Finish Times of the immediate predecessors of the task in question. These Early Finish Times are computed as Early Finish Time = Early Start Time + Task Duration Note that the first round activities with no prerequisite activities all have Early Start Times of zero, while the second round of tasks that do have immediate predecessors will have Early Start Times determined from the first of the two formulas above. Applying these steps recursively until all tasks have been addressed yields the duration of the entire project. This "critical path method" also identifies those activities that, if delayed, slow the completion of the entire project. Alternatively, in an adversarial situation where one wishes to impede the progress of an enemy Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. I have presented a highly simplified view of project scheduling that can be made more realistic. For example, task durations are unlikely to be known with certainty; more advanced models treat such durations as random variables, enabling one to compute the probability that a project is completed by a given date. Or, one could focus on cost/completion tradeoffs to examine how quickly one might complete a project given an expedition budget. In the next section, I discuss some applications of project management to intelligence problems. The intelligence analyst does not make decisions, but provides information in support of government (or military) executive decision makers. Operations researchers similarly play the advisory role of unbiased analysts in relation to executive decision makers. The second shared concern is timeliness; the Analytic Standards directive states "Analytic products that arrive too late to support the work of the consumers weaken utility and impact. Analysts will strive to deliver their products in time for them to be actionable by customers" (Director of National Intelligence, 2007, p. In this field a preliminary analysis based on incomplete data may often be much more valuable than a more thorough study using adequate data, simply because the crucial decisions cannot wait on the slower study but must be based on the preliminary analysis. The big improvements often come from the first quick survey of a new field; later detailed study may only gain small additional factors. Steele (1989) uses operations research models to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages posed by different communication protocols when the goal is to keep a secret. Operations ideas are almost entirely absent from intelligence analysis primers distributed by national intelligence agencies (Defense Intelligence Agency, 2008; U. Indeed, in contrast to excellent military resources such as the operations research group at the Naval Postgraduate School6 and the Military Operations Research Society,7 with the exception of focused technical expertise in operations research such as that found at the National Security Agency,8 apparently few operations researchers work within the intelligence community (Defense Science Board, 2009). Such opportunities present themselves when intelligence analysts focus on making inferences about adversarial supply chains, weapons development programs, the planning of terror attacks, the distribution of personnel or materiel, or any other operations of interest. Example: Producing Nuclear Weapons the development of nuclear weapons provides an intriguing case study for applying operations research to intelligence questions. In asking whether or not a "proliferator" is pursuing a nuclear weapons program, it is important to understand the possible forms a project designed to produce such 6. Such project management and scheduling problems can be approached using more sophisticated versions of the critical path method described earlier.

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Failure to intervene at the informal level and to maintain integrity among the three systems impedes technology utilization menstruation jewelry buy generic dostinex 0.25mg online. Glisson (1992) describes this misplaced emphasis as the technical imperative by which project planners view utilization as a solely technical process in which the success or failure rests exclusively on the technical components (for example menstruation 3 weeks after miscarriage purchase 0.25 mg dostinex free shipping, hardware and software) of the innovation women's health clinic north adelaide generic 0.5 mg dostinex otc. Organizational culture is defined as the values menstruation euphemisms purchase dostinex 0.5 mg visa, beliefs, and expectations that guide employee behavior (Schein, 1992); it encompasses decisionmaking systems, leadership, and work processes. For example, lack of leadership support for innovation has been shown to hinder technology implementation (Corder, 2003; Poon et al. Failure to provide logistical support (Mutschler and Hoefer, 1990) and organizational resistance to change (Drum et al. Organizational rigidity is defined as the degree to which organizations expect staff members to follow uniform policies and procedures for work practices; organizational proficiency is defined as the degree to which organizations emphasize competency, provide training and professional development opportunities for staff members, and expect them to provide the highest quality of services (Glisson et al. It is possible that staff members in organizations with clearly defined policies and procedures are more accustomed to learning new software that requires fairly systematic operation. Moreover, it is logical that in 10 Discovering Homelessness A Cross-Level Analysis of the Relationship Between Organizational Culture and Technology Use Among Homeless-Services Providers organizations that value staff competency, the culture better supports the use of new technologies than those that do not value competency as much. Its central point is that any technology is embedded in a larger social system that influences its implementation. Diffusion is "the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system" (Rogers, 2003: 5), and innovation is "an idea, practice, or object that is perceived of as new by the individual or other unit of adoption" (Rogers, 2003: 11). At its most basic level, the sociotechnical system contains two components: the technical system and the social system (Rosseau, 1977). The organization consists of technical productions, including equipment and operations; the individuals who use and operate the technologies; and the work structure that coordinates interaction between workers and technologies, including the management and job responsibilities and allocations (Trist and Bamforth, 1951). Trist and Bamforth conceptualized organizations as "complex, dynamic structures in symbiotic relationships with their environments" (Trist and Bamforth, 1951: 476). Sociotechnical theory seeks to understand the interdependency between the social system and the technical system. Behavior in one part of the organization affects other parts of the environment; thus, organizational activity is viewed through the lens of interaction effects. These changes can be interpreted on a continuum from the technology to the organization. According to this perspective, alterations or misuses of technology are functions of the user or the context in which the technology is implemented. Cityscape 11 Cronley Sociotechnical theory aims to resolve the conflicts between the technical system and the social system by achieving joint optimization, by making the social structure and the technical structure complement and support each other and the environment (Pasmore et al. Cooper and Foster (1971: 472) describe this optimization as an organizational choice, meaning "that there is an element of choice in designing effective work systems and that this choice must take into account the mutual de-pendence of the social and technical systems. If an organization requires staff members to devote work time toward learning and using a new technology, without decreasing other responsibilities, levels of stress and frustration among these individuals may rise. These individuals may react by refusing to learn the technology or altering its design or intended use to better match their work environments. Thus, to support the adoption and implementation of technologies, organizations often have to change aspects of their work processes. According to organizational culture theory (Schein, 1992), this change in process occurs by first altering the values, beliefs, and expectations about behavior in the work environment. Schein drew upon open systems theory when articulating his idea of organizational culture. Open systems theory views organizations from a biological model, where they exist within changing and unpredictable environments, with constant interactions between the two (Emery and Trist, 1965). Organizations that survive are those that successfully adapt to the changing environment. Culture incorporates both structure, such as size and levels of authority, and ideology, such as openness to change. Organizational culture describes how the work is done in an organization and is measured as the behavioral expectations reported by members of the organization. These expectations guide the way employees approach work and socialize new employees in the priorities of the organization (for example, rigidity and proficiency). Organizational culture is often described as layers, with behavioral expectations representing an outer layer and values or assumptions representing an inner layer (Homburg and Pflesser, 2000; Schein, 1992). Stated another way, Hofstede (1998) described behavior as the visible part of culture and values as the invisible part.

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Variability of Cr menstrual hormone cycle dostinex 0.5mg low cost, Co and Ni was mainly controlled by parent materials; while Pb menopause 6 months between periods purchase 0.25mg dostinex otc, Cu and Zn were controlled by long-term anthropogenic activities as indicated by large scale anomalies in spatial distribution map in Piemonte region of northwestern Italy (Facchinelli et al pregnancy day by day generic dostinex 0.25mg mastercard. In volcanic soils of the metropolitan and provincial areas of Napoli (Italy) womens health jan 2014 order dostinex 0.5mg overnight delivery, Cicchella et al. Maps obtained by the S-A method indicated anthropogenic contribution for some metals (Pb, Zn, Sb, Hg, Cd, Cr, Cu) due to the long period of constant human activities in the study area. These maps also showed a high geogenic contribution most probably derived from hydrothermal fluids of nearby active volcanic fields. Concentration­area fractal method (C-A) was used to classify the pixel values of baseline maps for determining background values to be used as reference values for the environmental Italian regulatory Law. Multivariate analysis has been used to estimate degree of contamination in surface soils of Guangdong Province in China due to intense industrialization and urbanization (Hu et al. Mean Cd, Cu, Zn, and As concentrations were over two times higher than the background values, with Cd, Cu, and Zn clearly contributed by anthropogenic sources. In Spain, similar technique was used to identify the sources of heavy metals in soils under vegetable cultivation (Mico et al. The content of Co, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn were associated with parent rocks and corresponded to the first principal component called the lithogenic component. A significant correlation was found between lithogenic metals and some soil properties such as soil organic matter, clay content, and carbonates, indicating an important interaction among them. On the other hand, elements such as Cd, Cu and Pb were related to anthropic activities and comprised the second (Cu and Pb) and third principal components (Cd), designated as anthropogenic components. Due to large variation in their contents, it becomes very difficult to identify a possibly contaminated soil through mere chemical analysis of a particular site without the knowledge on background concentration of the area. It is almost impossible to establish the true natural background level of trace metals in soils because of long-range atmospheric transport and precipitation of contaminants along with various other anthropogenic impacts. However, contributions of these anthropogenic sources are very small and hence are generally ignored during baseline concentration determination in soils of particular region. Baseline concentration represents an expected range of element concentrations around a mean in a normal sample medium and is defined as 95 % of the expected range of background concentrations. This can be determined in both numerical and statistical ways as a measure of central tendency. In many naturally occurring processes, population follow a normal distribution where about 68%, 95% and 99% of the population lies within Ж, Ж 2 and Ж 3 range (ј mean, and ј standard deviation), as indicated in. Geochemical baseline concentration has statistically been defined as concentration range in which 95% of samples are expected to belong (Gough et al. Quality reference values (similar to background concentration) of metals in soils of Cuba were determined based on 75th percentile of samples after removing anomalies through a boxplot (Alfaro et al. However, many investigators found that heavy metal concentrations in naturally occurring unpolluted soils follow a log-normal distribution, as exemplified in. Log-transformation of data minimizes distorting effects of a few high concentrations. All the reports indicated that the origin of heavy metals is parent materials and anthropogenic activities influenced their spatial distribution. Apart from these, climate, organic and inorganic components of soils as well as redox potential also affect the concentration level of trace metals in soils. In a study to determine spatial distribution of heavy metals in Guangdong province, Zhang et al. Anthropogenic activities were other secondary factor playing crucial role in their spread over the region. Geochemical distribution as well as baseline levels of 29 elements were determined in soils of Siddipet, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh (Dantu 2010). Regional parent materials and pedogenesis were the primary factors influencing the concentrations of trace elements while anthropogenic activities had secondary influence. Several other techniques have also been proposed for assessing the extent and degree of contamination of heavy metal in and surrounding area of industrial sites. The reference metal must be one that is overwhelmingly derived from a single source. Usually, Al, Sc, Ti, Fe Mn and Sr are used as the reference as these are present in significantly larger concentrations in soil and are not significantly altered by anthropogenic activities (Reimann and de Caritat 2000; Sutherland 2000; Saur and Juste 1994).

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