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This form of albuminuria was first noticed among soldiers, many of the raw recruits showing albumin after-a forced march. Later examination of the same soldiers shows practically every one- albumin-free (Flensburg). As further illustrations showing that the same may be true also Macfarland ^^* found in practically every player after a game an albuminuria which lasted for the most part but three to four hours. Miiller ^^^ showed that eight of eleven bicycle riders after races showed albumin, and seven of twelve showed casts of all descriptions and renal epithelium. The same is true of athletes, mountain climbers, bicycle riders, foot-ball players, those persons who exercise severely the leg and thigh muscles especially to a degree beyond that to which they are accustomed, and later are able to stand an equal amount without the same result. We may say that it is only a question of limit; practically every one can if he will produce albuTlie most norminuria, if he only over-exerts himself sufficiently. Having overstepped these, can the albuminuOf course, the limits ria which results be termed " physiological " In this same group Senator includes cases the relation of which to the normal bounds of the physiological it is more difficult to deter"* ^" New York Med. Among such are albuminurias following violent emotions and an unusually heavy proteid meal. The latter, " alimentary albuminuria," is a form considered doubtful by some, that is, in the sense that the kidney merely excretes an excess of proteid as a part of its normal function to relieve the blood of superfluous constituents, as glucose. Experiments show that a large amount of certain proteids (for instance, eight or more raw eggs) will in some apparently normal persons, but not all, cause albuminuria but the amount ingested must be excessive. In nephritis cases small amounts are for normal men begins in about two hours and lasts four. The output proved very satisfactory), suggests that the excess of may have, temporarily at least, placed the kidneys in a pathological condition. There is special reason for the albumin to appear should several tines] has not proteid in the blood of these predisposing factors occur simultaneously. The intermittent nature of the albuminuria is no criterion, since a truly pathological case may intermit considerably but in all such cases must be empha; sized the appearance of albumin after a very unusual strain or occurrence, and one adequate to explain its appearance also its very temporary duration. Often foF the first eight or ten days there is a slight amount of albumin with hyaline casts, epithelial cells, and urates present. This is also present in the urine found in the bladder of still-born children, and therefore is not attributable to any changed circulatory or metabolic products after birth. Ribbert gave as an explanation that the kidneys at birth are really not quite " finished," but there still occurs a desquamation of epithelium of the capsules of the glomeruli, hence with the albumin occurs nucleo-albumin from these cells. These cases are discovered by army medical inspectors, by the examiners for insurance companies, and by the doctors Insurance men to whom our neurasthenics apply for treatment. This group includes those persons enjoying reasonably good health, but of albumin. Posner proposes the quite satisfactory term, " essential albuminuria," for the albuminuria is the one symptom common to all. In these cases it may be presSome (Sir Andrew Clark ent only before rising in the morning. A diagnosis is possible only after long careful study of the m- dividual case, including past history and especially the physical signs on the part of the heart and reverse the diagnosis. If there be eyes, and even then the autopsy may good evidence of past renal disease or any cardiac features suggesting it, the case must be considered one of nephritis. It may be explained by a renal insuflficiency relative to the growing organism, the kidney not keeping pace with the physical growth and activity, together with instability of the vasomotor centres. In this group occur most of the cyclic or postural cases, not all, since some of these latter continue to adult life, and not all the cases of this group are truly 230 postural. The cases Lommel ^" would fall under this title, since the question was little considered. Of sediment there was none, or at the most a few hyaline casts and many times, in small fatty epithelial tients cells in the centrifugalized specimen. Of 130 pa- from the same class, but over twenty-five years old, only one showed albuminuria.
Beyond eight forms of rarity: which species are threatened and which will be next In Environmental quality 1980: the eleventh annual report of the Council on Environmental Quality, pp. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarcheology. Spatiotemporal trends of longline fishing effort in the Southern Ocean and implications for seabird bycatch. Climate change in Australian tropical rainforests: an impending environmental catastrophe Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. This parallels a better-known first law of biodiversity science, that biodiversity itself is also distributed unevenly (Gaston 2000; Chapter 2). Were it not for these two patterns, conservation would not need to be planned or prioritized. A conservation investment in one place would have the same effects as that in another. As it is, though, the contribution of a given conservation investment towards reducing biodiversity loss varies enormously over space. This recognition has led to the emergence of the sub-discipline of systematic conservation planning within conservation biology. Systematic conservation planning now dates back a quarter-century to its earliest contributions (Kirkpatrick 1983). A seminal review by Margules and Pressey (2000) established a firm conceptual framework for the sub-discipline, parameterized along axes derived from the two aforementioned laws. Variation in threats to biodiversity (and responses to these) can be measured as vulnerability (Pressey and Taffs 2001), or, put another way, the breadth of options available over time to conserve a given biodiversity feature before it is lost. Meanwhile, the uneven distribution of biodiversity can be measured as irreplaceability (Pressey et al. An alternative measure of irreplaceability is complementarity-the degree to which the biodiversity value of a given area adds to the value of an overall network of areas. This chapter charts the history, state, and prospects of conservation planning and prioritization, framed through the lens of vulnerability and irreplaceability. The remainder of the chapter tackles conservation planning and prioritization on the ground (and in the water). This in turn is organized according to three levels of increasing ecological and geographic organization: from species, through sites, to seascapes and landscapes. Fortunately, this still leaves hundreds of millions of dollars of globally flexible conservation investment that can theoretically be channeled to wherever would deliver the greatest benefit. Specifically, two of the templates prioritize regions of high vulnerability, as "reactive approaches", while three prioritized regions of low vulnerability, as "proactive approaches". Meanwhile, six of the templates prioritize regions of high irreplaceability; the remaining three do not incorporate irreplaceability. To understand these global priority-setting approaches, it is important to examine the metrics of vulnerability and irreplaceability that they use, and the spatial units among which they prioritize. All five of the global prioritization templates that incorporated vulnerability did so using the first of these measures, specifically habitat extent. Four of these utilized proportionate habitat loss, which is useful as a measure of vulnerability because of the consistent relationship between the number of species in an area and the size of that area (Brooks et al. However, it is an imperfect metric, because it is difficult to assess in xeric and aquatic systems, it ignores threats such as invasive species and hunting, and it is retrospective rather than predictive (Wilson et al. Beyond habitat loss, one template also incorporates land tenure, as protected area coverage (Hoekstra et al. The most common measure of irreplaceability is plant endemism, used by four of the templates, with a fifth (Stattersfield et al. Data limitations have restricted the plant endemism metrics to specialist opinion estimates, and while this precludes replication or formal calculation of irreplaceability (Brummitt and Lughadha 2003), subsequent tests have found these estimates accurate (Krupnick and Kress 2003).
Family implementation of positive behavior support for a child with autism: Longitudinal, single-case, experimental, and descriptive replication and extension. Escape behavior during academic tasks: A preliminary analysis of idiosyncratic establishing operations. Isolating the evocative and abative effects of an establishing operation on challenging behavior. Identification of competing reinforcers for behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. Evaluating the effects of functional communication training in the presence and absence of establishing operations. Differential impact of response effort within a response chain on use of mands in a student with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 26(1), 77-85. The use of functional communication training without additional treatment procedures in an inclusive school setting. Establishing discriminative control of responding using functional and alternative reinforcers during functional communication training. Using desktop videoconferencing to deliver interventions to a preschool student with autism. Functional communication training in the natural environment: A pilot investigation with a young child with autism spectrum disorder. An analysis of the effects of functional communication and a voice output communication aid for a child with autism spectrum disorder. Generalized reduction of problem behavior of young children with autism: Building trans-situational interventions. An evaluation of resurgence during treatment with functional communication training. Intervention targeting development of socially synchronous engagement in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Treatment of elective mute behavior in two developmentally delayed children using modeling and contingency management. The effects of modeling and praise on self-initiated behavior across settings with two adolescent students with autism. Naturalistic intervention occurs within typical settings, activities, and/or routines in which the learner participates. The effects of trainer-implemented enhanced milieu teaching on the social communication of children with autism. The effects of a developmental, social-Pragmatic language intervention on rate of expressive language production in young children with autistic spectrum disorders. Teaching social interaction skills in the integrated preschool an examination of naturalistic tactics. The effects of enhanced milieu teaching and a voice output communication aid on the requesting of three children with autism. The effect of behavioral skills training with generalcase training on staff chaining of child vocalizations within natural language paradigm. Joint attention training for children with autism using behavior modification procedures. Madison: University of Wisconsin, Waisman Center, the National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders. Parents are trained by professionals one-on-one or in group formats in home or community settings. Methods for training parents vary, but may include didactic instruction, discussions, modeling, coaching, or performance feedback. Parents may be trained to teach their child new skills, such as communication, play or self-help, and/or to decrease challenging behavior. Once parents are trained, they proceed to implement all or part of the intervention(s) with their child.
If we fail to keep them out and they establish populations, the next possibility is to attempt to find them quickly and perhaps to eradicate them. If they have already established and begun to spread widely, we may still try to eradicate them, or we can instead try to keep their populations at sufficiently low levels that they do not become problems. For planned introductions, such as of ornamental plants or new sport fish or game species, the law would be either a "white list," a "black list," or some combination of the two. A white list is a list of species approved for introduction, presumably after some risk analysis in which consideration is given to the features of the species intended for introduction and the outcome in other regions where it has been introduced. The most widely used risk analyses currently include versions of the Australian Weed Risk Assessment, which consists of a series of questions about species proposed for introduction and an algorithm for combining the answers to those questions to give a score, for which there is a threshold above which a species cannot be admitted (Pheloung et al. A black list is a list of species that cannot be admitted under any circumstances, and for which no further risk analysis is needed. For such lists to be effective, the risk analyses have to be accurate enough, and the lists sufficiently large, that the great majority of species that would become invasive are actually identified as such and placed on black lists or kept off white lists. For instance, the black list of the Lacey Act is very short, and many animal species that have a high probability of becoming invasive if introduced are not on the list. The risk assessment tools, on the other hand, all yield some percentage of false negatives-that is, species assessed as unlikely to cause harm, therefore eligible for a white list, when in fact they will become harmful. Kolar and Lodge 2002) is aimed at improving the accuracy of risk analyses-especially lowering the rate of false negatives while not inflating the rate of false positives (species judged likely to become invasive when, in fact, they would not). For inadvertent introductions, one must first identify pathways by which they occur (Ruiz and Carlton 2003). For instance, many marine organisms are inadvertently carried in ballast water (this is probably how the zebra mussel entered North America). The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), a dangerous forest pest, hitchhiked to North America in untreated wooden packing material from Asia, while snails have been transported worldwide on paving stones and ceramics. The Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) arrived in the United States in water transported in used tires. Once these pathways have been identified, their use as conduits of introduction must be restricted. For ballast water, for example, water picked up as ballast in a port can be exchanged with water from the open ocean to lower the number of potential invaders being transported. For insects and pathogens carried in wood, heat and chemical treatment may be effective. The general problem is that each of these procedures entails a cost, and there has historically been opposition to imposing such costs on the grounds that they interfere with free trade and make goods more expensive. Whatever the regulations in place for both deliberate and unplanned introductions, inspections at ports of entry are where they come into play, and here a variety of detection technologies are available and improvements are expected. Trained sniffer dogs are commonplace in ports in many countries, and various sorts of machinery, including increasingly accurate X-ray equipment, are widely in use (Baskin 2002). Although technologies have improved to aid a port inspector to identify a potential invader once it has been detected, in many nations these are not employed because of expense or dearth of qualified staff. Also, improved detection and identification capabilities are only half of the solution to barring the introduction of new species either deliberately or by accident (as for example, in dirt on shoes, or in untreated food). The other half consists of penalties sufficiently severe that people fear the consequences if they are caught introducing species. Many nations nowadays have extensive publicity at ports of entry, on planes and ships, and sometimes even in popular media, that combine educational material about the many harmful activities of invasive species and warnings about penalties for importing them. Because of the great expense of trained staff, few if any nations adequately monitor consistently for all sorts of invasions, although for specific habitats. Probably the most cost-effective way to improve monitoring is to enlist the citizenry to be on the lookout for unusual plants or animals and to know what agency to contact should they see something (see Figure 7. Such efforts entail public education and wide dissemination in pop- ular media and on the web, but they can yield enormous benefits. For instance, the invasion of the Asian longhorned beetle to the Chicago region was discovered by a citizen gathering firewood who recognized the beetle from news reports and checked his identification on a state agency website. This early warning and a quick, aggressive response by authorities led to successful regional extirpation of this insect after a fiveyear campaign. Similarly, the invasion in California of the alga Caulerpa taxifolia was discovered probably within a year of its occurrence by a diver who had seen publicity about the impact of this species in the Mediterranean. This discovery led to successful eradication after a four-year effort, and citizens have been alerted to watch for this and other non-native algal species in both Mediterranean nations and California. Many introduced species have been successfully eradicated, usually when they are found early but occasionally when they have already established widespread populations.
