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H. Kaelin, MD
Assistant Professor, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
Because all of these gases constitute a human health hazard, including the potential to cause spontaneous abortion and congenital abnormalities, the workplace must be wellventilated. Because this gas is heavier than air, a deep layer of gas must be built up so that the animals being euthanized cannot get above the gas. The chamber containing the animals must not be airtight or gas buildup may result in an explosion. Keep in mind that, even at concentrations of less than l percent, carbon monoxide is lethal and represents a substantial human safety hazard because it is highly toxic and difficult to detect. In concentrations exceeding 10 percent, carbon dioxide can be flammable and explosive. Work with this gas, as with anesthetic gases, must be conducted in an open area away from electrical equipment. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide may be purchased as compressed gases in cylinders. Lethal Injection To administer lethal injections, personnel must be trained in injection techniques and proper doses as well as in the safe handling and disposal of needles, syringes, and drugs. Federal drug regulations make the use of these agents, except by licensed veterinarians, largely impractical. Lethal injections can be used for any animal that can be given an intravenous injection, but they are probably most useful for mammals and large birds, such as geese. Lethal injections may not be appropriate in certain instances because drug residues interfere with some tests. Check first with the diagnostic laboratory to see if the proposed euthanasia technique is compatible with the testing to be performed. The need for individual handling and injection of each animal generally precludes using this technique for euthanasia of more than a few birds or animals per event. Proper disposal of carcasses is needed to prevent secondary poisoning of scavenger species in situations where more birds or animals are euthanized than are needed for diagnostic testing. Euthanasia 51 52 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: Birds Chapter 6 Guidelines for Proper Care and Use of Wildlife in Field Research Prologue Public attitudes towards animals continue to change over time. These changes apply to wildlife along with other species, and in recent years, attitudes have been increasingly oriented toward assuring that all species receive proper care whenever human interactions are involved. Guidance regarding the application of euthanasia is provided in the previous chapter. This chapter provides basic guidelines for the proper use of wildlife in field investigations. We believe this previously published information from the Wildlife Society is sufficiently important to include in this field manual. The Wildlife Society has been kind enough to grant permission for this reproduction. The scope of this chapter extends to all wildlife, and the application of this material extends beyond research to all wildlife investigations. This chapter is reproduced, with the addition of illustrations and minor modifications, as it appeared in Research and Management Techniques for Wildlife and Habitats (Bookhout, 1994), and, thus, it deviates from the format for the rest of Volume I. The variety of wild vertebrates investigated and of conditions encountered precludes provision of specific information applicable to each situation. Lists of useful references for those seeking more specific information are provided in the Appendices. The Act established definitions of terms (Part l) used in the regulations (Part 2) and standards (Part 3) for the humane handling, care, treatment, and transportation of regulated animals used for research or exhibition purposes, sold as pets, or transported in commerce. Excluded from the provisions of the Act are coldblooded vertebrates, birds, rats (Rattus) and mice (Mus) bred for use in research, horses and other farm animals used or intended for use as food and fiber, and livestock and poultry used or intended for use in improving animal nutrition, breeding, management, or production efficiency, or for improving the quality of food or fiber. Exclusion of animal species under the Act removes reporting requirements and reduces oversight by the U. Department of Agriculture, but does not negate coverage of these species under guidelines established by other agencies.
Thyroid/neck ultrasound is recommended to determine the size of the nodule as well as to detect other nodules and/or lymphadenopathy. The presence of irregular shape/borders and microcalcifications is associated with malignancy. Follicular neoplasm or "suspicious for malignancy": Consider 123I scan (functional nodules = low risk). Hemorrhage: Seen in critically ill patients, pregnancy, anticoagulated patients, and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Drugs: Ketoconazole, metyrapone, aminoglutethimide, trilostane, mitotane, etomidate. If a patient presents with acute bilateral adrenal hemorrhage, remember to test for antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Characterized by headache, nausea, vomiting, confusion, fever, and significant hypotension. Etiologies are as follows: Exogenous corticosteroids: the most common cause overall. If the neoplasm is not identifiable or treatable, options are as follows: Pharmacologic blockade of steroid synthesis (ketoconazole, metyrapone, aminoglutethimide). Potassium replacement (consider spironolactone to aid potassium maintenance, as these patients require industrial doses of potassium replacement). Familial aldosteronism: A rare autosomal-dominant condition; suspect if > 1 family member is affected. Most patients are asymptomatic, and there are no characteristic physical findings. In men, the most common side effect of spironolactone is gynecomastia, but other side effects may occur. Patients with pheochromocytoma are usually thin-"Fat Pheos are Few and Far between. Surgical resection by an experienced surgeon is the definitive treatment for these tumors. Follow-up: Should include 24-hour urine for metanephrines and normetanephrines two weeks postoperatively. Do not use -blockers in patients with pheochromocytoma before adequate -blockade has been achieved, as unopposed -blockade can lead to paroxysmal worsening of the hypertension. Sixty percent are functional, usually secreting androgens or cortisol (or both hormones). This is the only instance in which to consider needle biopsy of the lesion-but you must rule out pheochromocytoma first. Plasma renin activity and aldosterone level to screen for aldosteronoma in patients with hypertension or hypokalemia. The procedure plays no role in patients without a history of cancer, as it cannot distinguish between benign and malignant adrenal masses. Step 3: Treatment is based on the size and functional status of the mass: If the lesion is < 4 cm and nonfunctional, repeat imaging at 6 and 12 months. Consider periodic endocrine evaluation, since hormonal excess can develop over time. Symptoms of diabetes (polyuria, polydipsia, unexplained weight loss) plus a random glucose concentration 200 mg/dL (11. Members of high-risk ethnic groups (African-American, Hispanic, Native American, Asian-American, Pacific Islander).
This problem could increase in the future if more stringent air-quality standards restrict carcass incineration. Distribution As of 1997, the National Wildlife Health Center database contained records of 17 cases of barbiturate poisoning in eagles from six States. Seasonality Cases of barbiturate poisoning have been more frequent in late winter and early spring, but they are not confined to that period. Cases of barbiturate poisoning may be correlated with the spring thaw in northern climates, when carcasses thaw, and the internal organs become more readily available to scavengers. Field Signs the most useful and specific field sign is the proximity of dead or moribund birds to a euthanized animal carcass that shows evidence of scavenging. In lieu of that, the proximity of dead or moribund birds to a domestic animal carcass of unknown origin is a less specific sign, but under that circumstance, barbiturates should be considered along with other poisons, such as pesticides. Barbiturate-poisoned birds have been found near landfills in which euthanized animal carcasses were discarded. Barbiturate poisoning may take hours to develop; therefore, poisoned birds can be found distant from the poison source. Eagles have been found beneath their roost trees without evident sources of poisoning. Barbiturate-intoxicated birds are sedated, drowsy, sluggish, or comatose; have varying degrees of consciousness; and have slow heart and respiration rates. Although they may struggle to right themselves if they fall from a perch as toxicity progresses, signs of prolonged or violent struggling are unlikely. If more than one bird is exposed, the dose ingested and susceptibility to the poison may vary with each bird; Figure 48. Birds that are sedated or even comatose can recover if they are given supportive care until they metabolize the drug. Management State agricultural departments in the United States generally regulate carcass disposal to assure that carcasses are not available to scavengers. Circumstances such as frozen ground that prevents burial, poor compliance with regulations, or shallow burial may circumvent these regulations. Landfill regulations or policy can guarantee that carcasses are covered before scavenging is likely. Prevention can be greatly enhanced by increasing awareness of the hazard among the public and veterinary community. Ingesta may be present in the upper gastrointestinal tract as in other acute poisonings. Barbiturate-poisoned birds are often in good body condition, thus reflecting the acute nature of this toxicosis. Diagnosis Analysis of liver or upper gastrointestinal contents detects pentobarbital and, sometimes, other components of euthanasia drugs. Liver analysis is more definitive for determining that a bird absorbed drug from the ingesta. Samples of blood-engorged organs, blood clots, or other tissue from scavenged sites in the suspect domestic animal carcass can assist in tracing the source of the poison. Control Treatment Birds found alive in the field are often hypothermic (exhibiting low body temperature); warming of less affected birds, in itself, may result in recovery. A veterinarian can provide supportive care, administer cardiac and respiratory stimulants, and remove the undigested crop contents so that no further drug is absorbed. The material presented in Section 7, Chemical Toxins, is far from comprehensive because wild birds are poisoned by a wide variety of toxic substances. Also, monitoring of wild bird mortality is not yet organized so that diagnostic findings can be extended to reflect the relative impacts among the types of toxins, within populations, or among species, geographic areas, and time. The data that are available are not collectively based on random sampling, nor do specimen collection and submission follow methodical assessment methods. The inherent biases in this information include the species of birds observed dead (large birds in open areas are more likely to be observed dead than small forest birds); the species of birds likely to be submitted for analysis (bald eagles are more likely to be submitted than house sparrows); collection sites (agricultural fields are more likely to be observed than urban environments); geographic area of the country; season; reasons for submissions; and other variables. Nevertheless, findings from individual events reflect the causes of mortality associated with those events and collectively identify chemical toxins that repeatedly cause bird mortalities which result in carcass collection and submission for diagnostic assessment. The tables that follow illustrate the relative occurrence of poisoning by different types of toxic substances for wild bird carcasses evaluated at the National Wildlife Health Center during the period of 1984 through 1995.
Stock tanks, livestock feedlots, grain storage facilities and clusters of urban birdfeeders should be targeted for disease prevention activities. Platforms and other surfaces where feed may collect, including the area under feeders, should be frequently decontaminated with 10 percent solution of household bleach in water, preferably just prior to placing clean feed in the Supplementary Reading Conti, J. Harmon, 1988, Prevalence of Trichomonas gallinae in central California mourning doves: California Fish and Game, v. In birds, most disease-causing or pathogenic forms of coccidia parasites belong to the genus Eimeria. Coccidia usually invade the intestinal tract, but some invade other organs, such as the liver and kidney (see Chapter 27). Clinical illness caused by infection with these parasites is referred to as coccidiosis, but their presence without disease is called coccidiasis. In most cases, a bird that is infected by coccidia will develop immunity from disease and it will recover unless it is reinfected. The occurrence of disease depends, in part, upon the number of host cells that are destroyed by the juvenile form of the parasite, and this is moderated by many factors. In cranes, coccidia that normally inhabit the intestine sometimes become widely distributed throughout the body. Collectively, coccidia are important parasites of domestic animals, but, because each coccidia species has a preference for parasitizing a particular bird species and because of the self-limiting nature of most infections, coccidiosis in freeranging birds has not been of great concern. However, habitat losses that concentrate bird populations and the increasing numbers of captive-reared birds that are released into the wild enhance the potential for problems with coccidiosis. Characteristics of Intestinal Coccidiosis All domestic birds carry more than one species of coccidia, and pure infections with a single species are rare. Different coccidia species are usually found in a specific location within the intestinal tract of the host bird. After initial exposure to the parasite, the host bird may quickly develop immunity to it but immunity is not absolute. Infections do not generally cause a problem of freeranging birds; instead, coccidiosis is considered a disease of monoculture and of the raising of birds in confinement. Within the intestine, the oocysts may or may not undergo several stages of development, depending on the parasite species, before they become sexually mature male and female parasites. The mature female parasites release noninfective oocysts to the environment, and, thus, the cycle begins anew. Species Affected Many animal species, including a wide variety of birds (Table 26. Although disease is not common in free-ranging wild birds, several epizootics due to E. During those events, predominantly females have died, which suggests that female lesser scaup may be more susceptible to the disease than male lesser scaup. A mature female parasite in the intestine of an infected host bird produces noninfective, embryonated eggs or oocysts, which are passed into the environment in the feces of the host bird. The oocysts quickly develop into an infective form while they are in the environment. An uninfected bird ingests the infective oocysts while it is eating or drinking, and the infective Intestinal Coccidiosis 207 Distribution Coccidia are found worldwide. The few reported outbreaks of coccidiosis in free-ranging waterfowl have all occurred in the Midwestern United States. Recurrent epizootics have broken out at a single reservoir in eastern Nebraska, and coccidiosis is also believed to be the cause of waterfowl die-offs in Wisconsin, North Dakota, Illinois, and Iowa. These birds reside at the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge in Mississippi. Most epizootics of intestinal coccidiosis in waterfowl in the Upper Midwest have broken out in early spring, during a stressful staging period of spring migration. Nonspecific clinical signs reported for captive birds include inactivity, anaemia, weight loss, general unthrifty appearance, and a watery diarrhea that may be greenish or bloody. Although little is known about the conditions that may lead to the de- lnfected bird Parasite invades intestinal tissue Bird sheds noninfective oocysts (eggs) with feces into the environment Susceptible bird ingests infective oocysts while feeding/drinking Oocysts sporulate within 48 hours and become infective Figure 26. Noninfective parasite oocysts (eggs) containing a single cell referred to as the sporont are passed via feces into the environment. Oocysts become infective after 2 days in the environment at ordinary temperatures through sporolation (sporogony), which is a developmental process that results in the sporont dividing and forming four sporocysts each containing two infective sporozoites.
